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Expert System In Fiction

Expert system is a persistent style in science fiction, whether utopian, emphasising the potential benefits, or dystopian, stressing the dangers.

The notion of machines with human-like intelligence go back at least to Samuel Butler’s 1872 unique Erewhon. Since then, lots of sci-fi stories have provided various results of producing such intelligence, typically including disobediences by robots. Among the very best understood of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: An Area Odyssey with its homicidal onboard computer HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robotic in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.

Scientists and engineers have noted the implausibility of many sci-fi situations, but have discussed fictional robots lot of times in expert system research study articles, most typically in a utopian context.

Background

The notion of innovative robots with human-like intelligence go back at least to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. [1] [2] This drew on an earlier (1863) article of his, Darwin amongst the Machines, where he raised the concern of the evolution of consciousness amongst self-replicating machines that may supplant people as the dominant types. [3] [2] Similar concepts were likewise discussed by others around the very same time as Butler, including George Eliot in a chapter of her final released work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The creature in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has also been considered an artificial being, for example by the science fiction author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with at least some look of intelligence were imagined, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]

Utopian and dystopian visions

Expert system is intelligence shown by makers, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by human beings and other animals. [8] It is a reoccurring theme in sci-fi; scholars have actually divided it into utopian, stressing the potential benefits, and dystopian, stressing the dangers. [9] [10] [11]

Utopian

Optimistic visions of the future of expert system are possible in science fiction. [12] Benign AI characters include Robbie the Robot, initially seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of novels portrays a utopian, post-scarcity space society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with expert system living in socialist environments throughout the Milky Way. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have identified 4 major themes in utopian scenarios featuring AI: immortality, or indefinite life-spans; ease, or freedom from the need to work; satisfaction, or pleasure and entertainment provided by machines; and dominance, the power to protect oneself or rule over others. [16]

Alexander Wiegel contrasts the role of AI in 2001: A Space Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 movie Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the general public felt „innovation paranoia“ and the AI computer system HAL was depicted as a „cold-hearted killer“, by 2009 the general public were even more acquainted with AI, and the movie’s GERTY is „the peaceful rescuer“ who enables the lead characters to succeed, and who compromises itself for their security. [17]

Dystopian

The scientist Duncan Lucas writes (in 2002) that humans are stressed over the innovation they are building, and that as devices began to approach intelligence and thought, that concern ends up being intense. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the „animated automaton“, naming as examples the 1931 film Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century approach he names „heuristic hardware“, giving as instances 2001 a Space Odyssey, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas considers likewise the movies that illustrate the impact of the desktop computer on science fiction from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the limit in between the genuine and the virtual, in what he calls the „cyborg result“. He points out as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]

The film director Ridley Scott has concentrated on AI throughout his profession, and it plays a vital part in his films Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]

Frankenstein complex

A typical portrayal of AI in sci-fi, and among the oldest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term created by Asimov, where a robot turns on its developer. [22] For instance, in the 2015 film Ex Machina, the smart entity Ava turns on its developer, in addition to on its possible rescuer. [23]

AI disobedience

Among the lots of possible dystopian situations including synthetic intelligence, robots may take over control over civilization from people, forcing them into submission, concealing, or termination. [15] In tales of AI rebellion, the worst of all scenarios happens, as the intelligent entities developed by mankind end up being self-aware, reject human authority and attempt to ruin humanity. Possibly the very first book to address this style, The Wreck of the World (1889) by „William Grove“ (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), happens in 1948 and features sentient makers that revolt against the human race. [24] Another of the earliest examples is in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel Čapek, a race of self-replicating robot slaves revolt versus their human masters; [25] [26] another early instance is in the 1934 movie Master of the World, where the War-Robot kills its own creator. [27]

Many sci-fi disobedience stories followed, among the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 film 2001: An Area Odyssey, in which the artificially smart onboard computer HAL 9000 lethally breakdowns on an area mission and kills the entire crew except the spaceship’s commander, who manages to deactivate it. [28]

In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning brief story, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison provides the possibility that a sentient computer system (called Allied Mastercomputer or „AM“ in the story) will be as dissatisfied and disappointed with its boring, endless existence as its human creators would have been. „AM“ ends up being angered enough to take it out on the couple of people left, whom he sees as straight accountable for his own boredom, anger and misery. [29]

Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk unique Neuromancer, the intelligent beings may merely not care about people. [15]

AI-controlled societies

The intention behind the AI transformation is often more than the simple mission for power or a superiority complex. Robots might revolt to end up being the „guardian“ of humanity. Alternatively, humankind may intentionally give up some control, afraid of its own harmful nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 unique The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robots, in the name of their Prime Directive – „to serve and comply with and safeguard males from harm“ – basically presume control of every aspect of human life. No human beings may engage in any habits that might endanger them, and every human action is inspected thoroughly. Humans who withstand the Prime Directive are removed and lobotomized, so they might more than happy under the brand-new mechanoids‘ rule. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics likewise implied a kindhearted assistance by robots. [31]

In the 21st century, sci-fi has actually explored government by algorithm, in which the power of AI might be indirect and decentralised. [32]

Human supremacy

In other situations, humanity has the ability to keep control over the Earth, whether by prohibiting AI, by developing robots to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having human beings merge with robots. The science fiction novelist Frank Herbert explored the idea of a time when humanity may ban expert system (and in some analyses, even all kinds of calculating innovation consisting of integrated circuits) entirely. His Dune series points out a disobedience called the Butlerian Jihad, in which humanity defeats the wise machines and enforces a death sentence for recreating them, estimating from the fictional Orange Catholic Bible, „Thou shalt not make a device in the similarity of a human mind.“ In the Dune books published after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind go back to eliminate mankind as vengeance for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]

In some stories, mankind remains in authority over robotics. Often the robots are configured particularly to remain in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien films, not just is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship somewhat smart (the crew call it „Mother“), however there are likewise androids in the society, which are called „synthetics“ or „synthetic persons“, that are such best replicas of people that they are not victimized. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar likewise demonstrate simulated human feelings and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]

Simulated reality

Simulated truth has actually become a common theme in science fiction, as seen in the 1999 movie The Matrix, which illustrates a world where synthetically intelligent robotics oppress humanity within a simulation which is set in the contemporary world. [36]

Reception

Implausibility

Engineers and researchers have actually taken an interest in the way AI is provided in fiction. In films like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single separated genius becomes the very first to effectively build a synthetic general intelligence; scientists in the real life deem this to be unlikely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds can being submitted into synthetic or virtual bodies; usually no sensible description is provided regarding how this hard job can be accomplished. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man movies, robots that are set to serve humans spontaneously produce new objectives on their own, without a possible description of how this happened. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz identifies the manner ins which it portrays AIs, consisting of „independence and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental value of authenticity.“ [38] Another essential viewpoint to take is that fiction’s „non-rational components in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, and even the quasi-theological) are more than merely distortions or distractions from what might otherwise be a sober and logical public debate about the future of A.I.“ Fiction can discourage readers about future advances, triggering pessimism that we see today surrounding the subject of AI. [39]

Types of mention

The robotics researcher Omar Mubin and associates have analysed the engineering discusses of the top 21 fictional robots, based upon those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of fame, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 points out, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) received just 2. Of the overall of 121 engineering mentions, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet received both utopian and dystopian points out; for instance, HAL 9000 is seen as dystopian in one paper „because its designers failed to prioritize its goals effectively“, [42] but as utopian in another where a genuine system’s „conversational chat bot interface [lacks] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is ambiguity in how the computer analyzes what the human is trying to communicate“. [43] Utopian discusses, typically of WALL-E, were associated with the objective of enhancing interaction to readers, and to a lower extent with inspiration to authors. WALL-E was mentioned more frequently than any other robot for emotions (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for character. Skynet was the robotic usually discussed for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and associates thought that researchers and engineers avoided dystopian mentions of robotics, perhaps out of „a reluctance driven by uneasiness or simply an absence of awareness“. [44]

Portrayals of AI creators

Scholars have kept in mind that imaginary developers of AI are extremely male: in the 142 most influential films featuring AI from 1920 to 2020, just 9 of 116 AI developers depicted (8%) were female. [45] Such creators are portrayed as only geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe movies), connected with the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and big corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to replace a lost loved one or function as the perfect enthusiast (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]

Biology in fiction
Darwin among the Machines
Machine guideline
Simulated consciousness (science fiction).
List of artificial intelligence movies.

Notes

^ Mubin and associates noted that the orthography of robot names triggered them troubles; therefore HAL 9000 was also composed HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and similarly for other robots, so they believed their search was likely insufficient. [41] References

^ „Darwin among the Machines“, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. „Rise of the Self-Replicators“. Tim Taylor.

^ „Darwin among the Machines“. Journalism, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). „Ancient dreams of smart machines: 3,000 years of robots“. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robots: myths, machines, and ancient dreams of innovation. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. point out book: CS1 maint: place missing publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Sensible Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). „Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique“. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). „Introduction: Imagining AI„. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking about Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of synthetic intelligence. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. „A Few Notes on the Culture“. Archived from the initial on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). „When AI guidelines the world: what SF books inform us about our future overlords“. The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). „Hopes and fears for intelligent makers in fiction and reality“. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Science fiction: modern mythology: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). „Consciousness Awakening“. New Scientist.
^ „Grove, William“. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). „RUR or RU Ain’t A Person?“. Philosophy Now. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ „Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)“. The New York Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). „‚ 2001: A Space Odyssey‘ Is Still the ‚Ultimate Trip‘ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s work of art encourages us to reflect again on where we’re originating from and where we’re going“. The New York Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). „The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s „I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream“ and „Shatterday““. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ „The Humanoids (based upon ‚With Folded Hands‘)“. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). „Runaround“. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is an exact transcription of the laws. They also appear in the front of the book, and in both places, there is no „to“ in the second law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). „Artificial Intelligence in Contemporary Science Fiction“. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). „History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune“. Sci-fi Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). „How the Androids Took Over the Alien Franchise“. The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). „Could TARS From ‚Interstellar‘ Actually Exist? We Asked Science“. MTV News. Archived from the original on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). „The Matrix and Postmodernism“. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). „Which motion pictures get expert system right?“. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). „Who makes AI? Gender and representations of AI scientists in popular movie, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources

Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). „Life, but not as we understand it: A.I. and the popular imagination“. Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Linkoping University Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The‘ Cyborg Effect‘: Artificial Intelligence in Science Fiction (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). „Assessing the Presence of Sci-fi Robots in Computing Literature“. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). „The Stuff That Dreams Are Made of: AI in Contemporary Science Fiction“. Beyond Expert system. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). „AI in Science-fiction: a contrast of Moon (2009) and 2001: An Area Odyssey (1968 )“. Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Sci-fi Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.

External links

AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does artificial insanity rule?

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