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  • Founded Date 27/02/1986
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Expert System Industry In China

The artificial intelligence industry in individuals’s Republic of China is a quickly developing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms emphasizing science and innovation as the nation’s main efficient force.

The preliminary phases of China’s AI development were slow and came across considerable challenges due to absence of resources and talent. At the starting China was behind most Western countries in terms of AI development. A bulk of the research was led by researchers who had gotten college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of individuals’s Republic of China has actually progressively established a national agenda for artificial intelligence development and emerged as among the leading nations in expert system research study and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year plan in which it intended to become an international AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of „nationwide AI teams“ including fifteen China-based companies, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each company ought to lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s rapid AI advancement has considerably affected Chinese society in lots of areas, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, lodging and food services, and production are the leading industries that would be the most affected by further AI implementation.

The economic sector, university laboratories, and the military are working collaboratively in numerous aspects as there are few current existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its very first national law resolving AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade limitations planned to restrict China’s access to sophisticated computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the results of the Chinese federal government’s censorship routine on the advancement of generative artificial intelligence and skill acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and advancement of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the significance of science and technology for China’s economic development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research study and advancement did not start until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is due to the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union regardless of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers released AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had a generally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was difficult so China’s federal government approached these challenges by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and further supplying federal government funds for research projects. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s first research publication on expert system was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, smart automation and intelligence have been part of China’s nationwide technology plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has further expanded its research study and development funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research jobs has actually considerably increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy concern for the development of expert system, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the same year, synthetic intelligence was likewise discussed in the l lth five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the greatest award for Chinese achievements in the field of synthetic intelligence. The very first award event was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was held in China. This event corresponded with the Chinese federal government’s statement of the „Chinese Intelligence Year,“ a considerable milestone in China’s development of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China provided „A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan“ (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council prompted governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of expert system. Specifically, the plan explained AI as a tactical technology that has actually become a „focus of international competitors“. [14]:2 The document advised significant financial investment in a variety of tactical locations related to AI and called for close cooperation between the state and private sectors. On the celebration of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the „transferability of social resources“ in between financial and military ends is an essential element to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,“artificial intelligence plus“ was proposed to be elevated to a strategic level. [16] The exact same year saw the emergence of multiple application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and presented their first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its very first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council mentioned the need for huge skill acquisition, theoretical and practical advancements, in addition to public and private financial investments. [14] Some of the stated motivations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI method include the potential of artificial intelligence for commercial transformation, much better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business across fundamental, technical, and application layers, with related markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of synthetic intelligence broadened to various fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research study. With the development of large language designs (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese scientists started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large design called ‚Zidongtaichu.‘ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system launched China’s first big scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly provided the regulations concerning deepfakes, which ended up being effective in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on basic generative AI services safety requirements, including requirements for data collection and model training was released in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and aims to develop AI policy discussion with establishing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed issue over AI security threats, consisting of abuse of information or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, started utilizing news anchors produced with generative expert system to deliver phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which intends to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it rolled out a large language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in revenue over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd largest. The 4th and fifth largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by financiers as China’s new „AI Tigers“. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had been approved by the Chinese federal government. [33]

As of 2024, lots of Chinese technology companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have released AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Infotech

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the leading edge of AI technology will be important to the future of global military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make basic contributions to basic AI theory and to solidify its location as an international leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council goes for AI to become „the primary driving force for China’s industrial upgrading and economic change“ by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the international leader in the development of artificial intelligence theory and technology. The State Council declares that China will have developed a „fully grown new-generation AI theory and innovation system.“ [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government „looks for to combine state preparation and control while some operational versatility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competition through domestic market securities, developing asymmetric benefits as they expand offshore.“ [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy declared AI as a leading research top priority and ranks AI initially among „frontier industries“ that the Chinese government aims to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a tactical sector frequently supported by China’s federal government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI financing generally concentrated on innovative and applied research study. [38] The federal government financing also supported several AI R&D in the private sector through venture capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research showed that, while China is massively purchasing all aspects of AI development, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous automobiles are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to nationwide guidance on establishing China’s state-of-the-art commercial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county chosen as an experimental development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending on cities and local industrial advancement and community. For instance, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production industry, heavily concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI implementations and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the top reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competition for computer vision systems. [41] A lot of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic surveillance network. [42]

Interdisciplinary partnerships play a vital function in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate cooperation, public-private collaborations, and worldwide collaborations and tasks with corporate-government collaborations are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top 3 around the world following the United States and the European Union for the total number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the overall variety of global AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are primarily sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the world’s largest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI scientists had completed their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has been proactive in managing AI services and enforcing commitments on AI business, the overall method to its policy is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population produces a massive amount of accessible data for business and researchers, which offers an essential benefit in the race of big information. As of 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest variety of internet users, producing huge amounts of data for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial acknowledgment is one of the most extensively utilized AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of information from its homeowners helps further train and expand AI abilities. China’s market is not just favorable and important for corporations to more AI R&D however likewise uses remarkable economic possible attracting both international and domestic companies to sign up with the AI market. The extreme advancement of the information and communication innovation (ICT) industry and AI chipsets in the last few years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s largest exporter of facial acknowledgment technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) issued draft steps specifying that tech companies will be obligated to make sure AI-generated content maintains the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates intellectual home rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, companies bear legal obligation for training information and content generated through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced content may not „incite subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.“ [51] Before launching a big language design to the general public, companies need to look for approval from the CAC to accredit that the design declines to respond to certain questions relating to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions connected to politically sensitive subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh must be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was obstructed to Hugging Face, a company that maintains libraries containing training data sets commonly used for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, supplies local companies with training data that CCP leaders think about permissible. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has actually warned that the Chinese government utilizes generative artificial intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking conversations on divisive political concerns. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system model DeepSeek has been reported to decline to answer concerns associating with features of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic effect

Most companies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s financial effect on China’s long-lasting economic development. In the past, traditional markets in China have struggled with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, operational expenses are expected to decrease while a boost in effectiveness generates profits development. [60] Some highlight the significance of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to get rid of adoption barriers including costs and absence of appropriately trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers may be the most negatively affected by China’s AI development because of increasing demands for laborers with innovative skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial growth may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related industrial development is focused in coastal areas rather than inland. [61]

An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military impact

China seeks to develop a „world-class“ armed force by „intelligentization“ with a specific focus on the usage of unmanned weapons and synthetic intelligence. [62] [63] It is investigating numerous types of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing lorries. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial cars at an airshow. A media report launched later on revealed a computer simulation of a similar swarm development finding and damaging a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications showed that China is also developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mostly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. plans for defense innovation and worries of a broadening „generational space“ in contrast to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military principles, China aims to utilize AI for making use of large chests of intelligence, producing a common operating photo, and speeding up battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) technique, which looks for to incorporate sensing units and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve categories of military applications of AI have actually been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software, choice assistance, software, automated missile launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, few boundaries exist between Chinese commercial companies, university lab, the military, and the central government. As a result, the Chinese federal government has a direct methods of assisting AI advancement top priorities and accessing innovation that was for civilian functions. To further enhance these ties the Chinese government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI technology from industrial companies and research study institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower costs of information labeling to create the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one price quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the prospective to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in business dealing with militarily appropriate AI applications, possibly granting it legal access to U.S. technology and copyright. [69] Chinese endeavor capital financial investment in U.S. AI companies between 2010 and 2017 totaled an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration provided an executive order to prevent foreign investments, „especially those from competitor or adversarial countries,“ from purchasing U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. nationwide security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese federal government has actually been investing, including „microelectronics, artificial intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] sophisticated tidy energy.“ [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have developed a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unapproved due to its design use restriction for military purposes. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, particularly because China faces difficulties in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the data scientists in the United States have actually been operating in the field for over 10 years, while roughly the very same proportion of information researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research study items. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the variety of research documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released papers, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th globally. [75] China specifically want to deal with military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research, just recently developed the first kids’s curriculum in military AI worldwide. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field stayed in China for work. [77] According to a database preserved by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the past years, there are conversations about AI safety and ethical issues in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the very first nationwide ethical standard, ‚the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code‘ on the topic of AI with particular focus on user protection, information personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adaptation by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that humans will remain in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system published the Beijing AI principles requiring essential needs in long-term research study and planning of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has been the most typical subject in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and numerous national governments have actually developed legislation addressing data privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to attend to brand-new difficulties raised by AI development. [80] [original research?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, establishing a regulatory structure classifying all type of data collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech companies in China are required to classify their data into categories noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific guidelines on how to govern and manage data transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements related to ecommerce and internet-related intellectual property claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI examines the evidence presented and applies appropriate legal standards. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based on fragmented judicial data can reach unbiased choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Government and Law, writes that AI-technology business may deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that „increasing celebration management, political oversight, and lowering the discretionary space of judges are intentional goals of SCR [smart court reform]“ [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound recognition and drone technologies. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has actually sought to motivate personal tech companies in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as „AI champs“. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language model Hunyuan for business usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by financiers as China’s brand-new „AI Tigers“ in 2024. [32] 01. AI has also been promoted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s commitment to global AI leadership and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded reasons for China’s anxiety towards protecting a worldwide technological dominance – China missed out on both commercial revolutions, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to take advantage of the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital innovation consisting of AI to resume China’s „rightful“ location and to pursue the national renewal proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A short article published by the Center for a New American Security concluded that „Chinese government officials demonstrated remarkably eager understanding of the problems surrounding AI and international security. This includes understanding of the U.S. AI policy conversations,“ and advised that „the U.S. policymaking community to likewise focus on cultivating competence and understanding of AI developments in China“ and „funding, focus, and a willingness amongst U.S. policymakers to drive massive needed modification.“ [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: „China might have unparalleled resources and massive untapped potential, but the West has world-leading expertise and a strong research culture. Instead of fret about China’s development, it would be sensible for Western nations to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education. “ [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship routine has actually stunted the advancement of generative artificial intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the development of AI creates difficulties for holistic nationwide security, including the threats that AI will increase social stress or have destabilizing effects on global relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will lead to greater injustice of workers and more severe social problems. [28]:90 Gao cites how the development of AI has increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, causing higher capital build-up and political power in fewer economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state should be the primary accountable star in the location of generative AI (producing brand-new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military usage of AI threats escalating military competitors in between countries which the effect of AI in military matters will not be limited to one country however will have spillover impacts. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential danger from expert system have occurred. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is usually optimistic concerning AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study carried out across 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the advantages of AI outweigh the risks, the greatest of any country in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese university trainees found that 80% concurred or strongly agreed that AI will do more good than damage for society, and 31% believed it must be regulated by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The commonly used AI facial recognition has actually raised issues. [94] According to The New York Times, deployment of AI facial recognition innovation in the Xinjiang region to discover Uyghurs is „the very first recognized example of a federal government deliberately utilizing synthetic intelligence for racial profiling,“ [95] which is stated to be „among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.“ [96] Researchers have actually discovered that in China, locations experiencing greater rates of unrest are associated with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition innovation, specifically by regional community police departments. [97] [98]

Artificial intelligence.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of expert system business
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.

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